Medical and Behavioral Evaluation of Astronaut Candidates

The following are extracts from U.S. Senate, Project Mercury: Man-in Space Program of the NASA, Report of the Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, 86th Cong, 1st sess, Dec. 1,1959, pp 42-46, 62-68. The evaluation of subsequent astronaut candidates remained fundamentally unchanged.

Medical factors involved in Mercury astronaut selection

1. Physical fitness. - Immediately following their Washington interviews the candidates were assigned to groups, five of six men each and one of two. One group at a time reported to the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, N. Mex., for an exhaustive series of examinations. The other men returned to their home stations to await the call for their groups. The first contingent entered Lovelace February 7, and the others on succeeding Saturdays. Each candidate spent 7 1/2 days and 3 evenings at the Lovelace facility.

General physical requirements were established by the NASA Life Sciences Committee since all those examined were active test pilots it was not anticipated that any would be disqualified as physically unfit. Rather, degrees of physical soundness were obtained and evaluation was dependent upon a comparison of each man to his fellow candidates

To establish a comparative yardstick, the Lovelace program began with a complete aviation and medical history extending to the following areas:

Hematology and pathology (blood and study of tissues).

Roentgenology (X-ray consultations).

Ophthalmology (eyes).

Otolaryngology (ears, nose and throat).

Cardiology (heart and circulation).

Neurology and myology (nerves and muscles).

General internal medicine.

Related laboratory studies.

Special consultations were provided if indicated by the candidate's medical history or any Of the general examinations. These examinations were given under normal clinical procedures, while the subject was in a resting condition.

Results were recorded on special computing cards developed by the Lovelace Clinic for the astronaut program. These cards are mark-sensed so they may be read directly by the examining physician and contain the candidate's complete aviation and medical histories and examination findings.

2. Psycho-physiological stress testing procedures. - A determination of the candidates psychological makeup and an estimate of his ability to cope with stresses was made.

The Air Force, with the assistance of Army and Navy specialists conducted psychological and stress measurements at the Wright Air Development Center Aeromedical Laboratories. The examinations were m these general areas:

(a) Psychiatric evaluation, psychological testing, anthropometric studies.

(b) Stress tolerance determinations to: Thermal flux, accelerative forces, low barometric pressures, pressure suit protection, isolation and confinement.

(c) Final clinical appraisal of suitability.

Testing at WADC was conducted with candidates in six groups of five men each and one group of two. The first group entered February 15; each man was evaluated 6 days and 3 evenings. A [295] complex appraisal of both clinical and statistical test results went into the WADC evaluation of candidates. As in the case of the Lovelace examinations, results were not a matter of passing or failing, but instead were measures of how one candidate compared with all others.

3. Final selection. - Data from the Lovelace and WADC examinations were compiled and forwarded to the NASA Langley space flight activity for the fourth and final step in the selection process. At Langley, a group representing both the medical and technical fields evaluated the previous examinations. The seven ultimately selected were chosen as a result of physical, psychological and stress tolerance abilities and because of the technical experience each represents.

Clinical examinations given by the Lovelace Clinic

Medical history and physical examination, with internal examinations and orthopedic or other specialty consultations, included:

1. Laboratory tests: hemoglobin (measure of oxygen carrying red pigment); hematocrit (examination of blood by use of a centrifuge); grouping; Rh factor; serology (examination of blood serums); sedimentation rate (analysis of urine deposits); stool examinations; urinalysis; gastric analysis; cholesterol (substance present in gallstones, heart ailments, etc ); liver function test; urinary steroid excretion (measures of the hormones, acids and poisons); blood nitrogen; blood protein; protein-bound iodine; special serum studies; throat culture, and chemical examination of body outputs, and blood counts.

2. X-rays: chest, large intestine, sinuses, spine, stomach, esophagus, teeth and heart. Moving pictures were taken of the heart to determine any artery calcification.

3. Eyes: history, dilation, visual fields, tonometry (measure of inner pressure on the eyes), slit lamp, dynamic visual acuity, depth perception, night vision, and photography of conjunctival vessel (eye membrane) and retina.

4. Ears, nose, and throat: examination of throat and nasal passages; audiogram with and without background noises: speech discrimination and voice tape recording.

5. Heart: cardiograms of heart muscle contraction, heart stroke volume and heart sounds; measure of the chest which overlies the heart.

6. Nerves and muscles: general neurologic examination with muscle testing: electric stimulation of the nerves to determine response; measure of any nerve abnormality; tracing of electric currents produced by the brain.

Special dynamic examinations given by {he Lovelace Clinic to measure body efficiency

1. Physical competence: measured by an ergometer, a device similar to a bicycle. Subject pedals increasing amount of weight while wearing an oxygen mask. Heartbeat and oxygen consumption determined Evaluation is made by the amount subject can pedal by the time his heart reaches 180 beats per minute.

2. Pulmonary function: lung capacity and breathing efficiency determined by measuring the amount of oxygen subject breathes normally and during exercise.

3. Lean body mass: a correlation of the following:

Total body radiation count, conducted by the Atomic Energy Commission's Los Alamos Laboratories to determine the amount of potassium in the body.

Specific gravity, weighing the subject in air and while he is totally immersed in water.

Blood volume measured by inhaling a small amount of carbon monoxide and observing the amount absorbed by the blood after a specified time.

Water volume, determined by swallowing a small amount of tritium and observing its rate of dilution.

4. Presence of heart-chamber openings: amount of blood oxygen is measured during and after a Valsalva maneuver. The Valsalva exercise is accomplished by blocking the nose and blowing into a tube.

Stress test conducted at the Wright Air Development Center

1. Harvard step: subject steps up 20 inches to a platform and down once every 2 seconds for 5 minutes to measure his physical fitness.

2. Treadmill maximum workload: Subject walks at a constant rate on a moving platform which is elevated I degree each minute. Test continues until heart reaches 180 beats per minute. Test of physical fitness.

3. Cold pressor: Subject plunges his feet into a tub of ice water. Pulse and blood pressure measured before and during test.

4. Complex behavior simulator: A panel with 12 signals, each requiring a different response. Measure of ability to react reliably under confusing situations.

[296] 5. Tilt table: Subject lays on steeply inclined table for 25 minutes to measure ability of the heart to compensate for body in an unusual position for an extended time.

6. Partial pressure suit Subject is taken in pressure chamber to a simulated altitude of 65,000 feet in a MCI partial pressure suit. test lasts 1 hour. Measure of efficiency of heart system and breathing at low ambient pressures.

7. Isolation: Subject goes into a dark, soundproof room for 3 hours to determine his ability to adapt to unusual circumstances and to cope with the absence of external stimuli.

8 Acceleration: Subject is placed in a centrifuge with his seat inclined at various angles to measure his ability to withstand multiple gravity forces.

9. Heat: Subject spends 2 hours in a chamber with the temperature at 130°F to measure reaction of heart and body functions while under this stress.

10. Equilibrium and vibration: Subject is seated on a chair which rotates simultaneously on two axes. He is required to maintain the chair on an even keel by means of a control stick with and without vibration, normally and while blindfolded.

11. Noise: Subject is exposed to a variety of sound frequencies to determine his susceptibility to tones of high frequency.

Psychological tests administered at the Wright Air Development Center

1. To determine personality and motivation interviews, Rorschach (ink blot); apperception (tell stories suggested by picture); draw-a-person; sentence completion; self-inventory based on 566-item questionnaire; officer effectiveness inventory; personal preference schedule based on 225 pairs of self-descriptive statements; personal inventory based on 20 pairs of self descriptive statements, preference evaluation based on 52 statements; determination of authoritarian attitudes, and interpretation of the question, Who am I?

2. To determine intelligence and special aptitudes: Wechsler adult scale; Miller analogies; Raven matrices; Doppelt mathematical reasoning test; engineering analogies; mechanical comprehension; officer qualification test, aviation qualification test; space memory; spatial orientation; hidden figures perception; spatial visualization, and peer ratings.

(A paper by George E. Ruff, Captain, USAF (MC) and Edwin Z. Levy, Captain, USAF (MC), Stress and Fatigue Section, Biophysics Branch, Aero Medical Laboratory, Wright Air Development Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio)

The high levels of stress expected in space flight require careful screening of potential pilots by psychological and physiological techniques. Since emotional demands may be severe, special emphasis must be placed on psychiatric evaluation of each candidate for a space mission

The selection process begins with a detailed analysis of both the pilot's duties and the conditions under which he will carry them out. As long as we have had no direct experience with space flight, some aspects of this analysis will necessarily be speculative. We must thus rely heavily on knowledge of behavior during stress situations in the past. As a result, data from military operations, survival experiences, and laboratory experiments have guided the choice of men for space missions now being planned.

Although striking exceptions are seen, the individuals who have done best under difficult circumstances m the past have been mature and emotionally stable. They have usually been able to harmonize internal needs with external reality in an effective manner. When subjected to stress, anxiety has not reached high enough levels to paralyze their activity.

After the requirements of the mission and the qualifications of the individual best suited to accomplish it have been decided, it is necessary to select measures for determining who has the most of each desirable characteristic and the least of each undesirable characteristic. This can be done by using interviews and projective tests to give an intensive picture of each individual. Objective tests supplement the personality evaluation and measure intellectual functions. aptitudes and achievements. After examination of the background data, interview material, and test results, clinical judgment is used to decide which men are psychologically best qualified for the assignment.

As firsthand knowledge of space flight increases, these procedures must be reexamined. When enough data have accumulated, predictions can be checked against performance criteria. Methods [297] which predicted accurately will be retained and improved. Those with little value will be discarded. New measures can be added on the basis of increasing experience. Once correlation between psychological variables and the quality of performance have been determined, the accuracy of future selection programs should be raised.

A clinical approach of this type was used in selecting pilots for the first U.S. manned satellite experiment - NASA's Project Mercury. The objective was to choose men for a 2-year training program, followed by a series of ballistic and orbital flights. The pilot's duties will consist largely of reading instruments and recording observations. However, he will retain certain decision-making functions, and will be required to adapt to changing conditions as circumstances may demand.

By combining data on the nature of this mission with information on behavior during other stressful operations, the following general requirements were established:

(1) Candidates should have a high level of general intelligence, with abilities to interpret instruments, perceive mathematical relationships, and maintain spatial orientation.

(2) There should be sufficient evidence of drive and creativity to insure positive contributions to the development of the vehicle and other aspects of the project as a whole.

(3) Relative freedom from conflict and anxiety is desirable. Exaggerated and stereotyped defenses should be avoided.

(4) Candidates should not be overly dependent on others for the satisfaction of their needs, At the same time, they must be able to accept dependence on others when required for success of the mission. They must be able to tolerate either close associations or extreme isolation.

(5) The pilot should be able to function when out of familiar surroundings and when usual patterns of behavior are impossible.

(6) Candidates must show evidence of ability to respond predictably to foreseeable situations, without losing the capacity to adapt flexibly to circumstances which cannot be foreseen.

(7) Motivation should depend primarily on interest in the mission rather than on exaggerated needs for personal accomplishment. Self-destructive wishes and attempts to compensate for identity problems or feelings of inadequacy are undesirable.

(8) There should be no evidence of impulsivity. The pilot must act when action is appropriate, but refrain from action when inactivity is appropriate. He must be able to tolerate stress situations positively, without requiring motor activity to dissipate anxiety.

The chances of finding men to meet these requirements were increased by the preselection process. Eligibility for the mission was restricted to test pilots who had repeatedly demonstrated their ability to perform functions essential for the Mercury project. Records of men in this category were reviewed to find those best suited for the specific demands of the mission. A group of 69 were then invited to volunteer. The 55 who accepted were given a series of interviews and psychological tests. On the basis of these data, 32 were chosen for the final phase of the selection program. This phase was designed to evaluate each candidate's medical and psychological status, as well as to determine his capacity for tolerating stress conditions expected in space flight.

The psychological evaluation included 30 hours of psychiatric interviews, psychological tests, and observations of stress experiments. The information obtained was used to rate candidates on a 10-point scale for each of 17 categories. Ratings were made on the basis of specific features of behavior - both as indicated by the past history and as observed during the interviews. Even though the general population was used as a reference group, the scales are normative only in an arbitrary sense. The 10 levels represent subjective decisions on which characteristics are ideal, which are average and which are undesirable. Although the reliability among raters is excellent, validation studies have not yet been done.

The categories are:

(1) Drive: An estimate of the total quality of instinctual energy.

(2) Freedom from conflict and anxiety: A clinical evaluation of the number and severity of resolved problem areas and of the extent to which they interfere with the candidate's functioning.

(3) Effectiveness of defenses: How efficient are the ego defenses? Are they flexible and adaptive or rigid and inappropriate? Will the mission deprive the candidate of elements necessary for the integrity of his defensive system?

(4) Free energy: What is the quantity of neutral energy? Are defenses so expensive to maintain that nothing is left for creative activity? How large is the "conflict-free sphere of the ego"?

(5) identity: How well has the candidate established a concept of himself and his relationship to the rest of the world?

(6) Object relationships: Does he have the capacity to form genuine object relationships? Can he : withdraw object cathexes when necessary? To what extent is he involved in his relationships with others?

[298] (7) Reality testing: Does the subject have a relatively undistorted view of his environment? Have his experiences been broad enough to allow a sophisticated appraisal of the world? Does his view of the mission represent fantasy or reality?

(8) Dependency: How much must the candidate rely on others? How well does he accept dependency needs? Is separation anxiety likely to interfere with his conduct of the mission?

(9) Adaptability: How well does he adapt to changing circumstances? What is the range of conditions under which he can function? What are the adjustments he can make? Can he compromise flexibility?

(10) Freedom from impulsivity: How well can the candidate delay gratification of his needs? Has his behavior in the past been consistent and predictable?

(11) Need for activity: What is the minimum degree of motor activity required? Can he tolerate enforced passivity?

(12) Somatization. Can the candidate be expected to develop physical symptoms while under stress? How aware is he of his own body?

(13) Quantity of motivation: How strongly does he want to participate in the mission? Are there conflicts between motives - whether conscious or unconscious? Will his motivation remain at a high level?

(14) Quality of motivation: is the subject motivated by a desire for narcissistic gratification? Does he show evidence of self-destructive wishes? Is he attempting to test adolescent fantasies of

(15) Frustration tolerance: What will be the result of the failure to reach established goals? What behavior can be expected in the face of annoyances delays or disappointments,

(16) Social relationships: How well does the subject work with a group? Does he have significant authority problems? Will he contribute to the success of missions for which he is not chosen as pilot? How well do other candidates like him?

(17) Overall rating: An estimate of the subject's suitability for the mission. This is based upon interviews test results and other information considered relevant.

It can be seen that categories 1, 2, 4 and 10 are largely economic constructs: 3, 5, 6 and 7 are ego functions; while the rest are specific characteristics considered important for spaceflight. The categories represent many different levels of abstraction and are not independent dimensions. In the final analysis they are less a means of quantifying data than of organizing their interpretation. Not only do they provide a method to compare one subject with another, but also tend to focus on the material most closely related to the mission requirements.

An initial evaluation of each man was made by two psychiatrists through separate interviews during the preliminary screening period. One interview was devoted primarily to a review of the history and current life adjustment while the other was relatively unstructured. Finally ratings were compared information pooled and a combined rating made. Areas of doubt and disagreement were recorded for subsequent investigation.

The men accepted fur the final screening procedure were seen again several weeks later, after an intensive evaluation of their physical status had been completed. Each candidate was reinterviewed and the following psychological tests were administered:

Measures of motivation and personality

(1) Rorschach.

(2) Thematic apperception test.

(3) Draw-a-person.

(4) Sentence completion test.

(5) Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory.

(6) Who am 1?: The subject is asked to write 20 answers to the question "Who am I?, This is interpreted projectively to give information on identify and perception of social roles

(7) Gordon personal profile: An objective personality test yielding scores for ''ascendency,"

(8) Edwards personal preference schedule: A forced choice questionnaire measuring the strengths of Murray's needs.

(9) Shipley personal inventory: Choices are made from 20 pairs of self-descriptive statements concerning psychosomatic problems

(10) Outer-inner preferences: A measure of interest in and dependence on social groups.

(11) Pensacola Z-scale: A test of the strength of "authoritarian" attitudes

(12) Officer effectiveness inventory: A measure of personality characteristics found in successful

(13) Peer ratings: Each candidate was asked to indicate which of the other members of the group [299] who accompanied him through the program he liked best, which one he would like to accompany him on a two-man mission, and which one he would assign to the mission if he could not go himself.

Measures of intellectual functions and special aptitudes

(1) Wechsler adult intelligence scale.

(2) Miller analogies test.

(3) Raven progressive matrices: A test of nonverbal concept formation.

(4) Doppelt mathematical reasoning test: A test of mathematical aptitudes.

(5) Engineering analogies: A measure of engineering achievement and aptitudes.

(6) Mechanical comprehension: A measure of mechanical aptitudes and ability to apply mechanical principles.

(7) Air Force officer qualification test: The portions used are measures of verbal and quantitative aptitudes.

(8) Aviation qualification test (USN): A measure of academic achievement.

(9) Space memory test: A test of memory for location of objects in space.

(10) Spatial orientation A measure of spatial visualization and orientation.

(11) Gottschaldt hidden figures: A measure of ability to locate a specified form imbedded in a mass of irrelevant details.

(12) Guilford-Zimmerman spatial visualization test: A test of ability to visualize movement in space

In addition to the interviews and tests, important information was obtained from the reactions of each candidate to a series of stress experiments simulating conditions expected during the mission. Neither the design of these tests nor the physiological variables measured will be discussed. Psychological data were derived from direct observation of behavior, post-experimental interviews, and administration before and after each run of alternative forms of six tests of perceptual and psychomotor functions. These procedures were:

(1) Pressure suit test: After dressing in a tightly fitting garment designed to apply pressure to the body during high altitude flight, each candidate entered a chamber from which air was evacuated to simulate an altitude of 65,000 feet. This produces severe physical discomfort and confinement.

(2) Isolation Each man was confined m a dark, soundproof room for 3 hours. While this brief period is not stressful for most people, data are obtained on the style of adaption to isolation. This procedure aids in identifying subjects who cannot tolerate enforced inactivity, enclosure in small spaces or absence of external stimuli.

(3) Complex behavior simulator: The candidate was required to make different responses to each of 14 signals which appeared in random order at increasing rates of speed. Since the test produces a maximum of confusion and frustration, h measures ability to organize behavior and to maintain emotional equilibrium under stress.

(4) Acceleration: The candidates were placed on the human centrifuge in various positions and subjected to different G loads. This procedure leads to anxiety, disorientation, and blackout in susceptible subjects.

(5) Noise and vibration: Candidates were vibrated at varying frequencies and amplitudes and subjected to high energy sound. Efficiency is often impaired under these conditions.

(6) Heat Each candidate spent 2 hours in a chamber maintained at 130°. Once again, this is an uncomfortable experience during which efficiency may be impaired.

After all tests were completed, an evaluation of each man was made by a conference of those who had gathered the psychological data. Final ratings were made in each category described previously, special aptitudes were considered, and a ranking within the group was derived. By combining the psychiatric evaluations, results of the physical examinations and physiological data from the stress test procedures the group was subdivided under the headings "Outstanding," "Recommended," and "Not Recommended." Finally, seven men were chosen from the list according to the specific needs of the Mercury project.

Although the results of the selection program can't be assessed for several years, impressions derived from psychiatric evaluations of these candidates are of interest. In answer to the question,

"What kind of people volunteer to be fired into orbit?" one might expect strong intimations of psychopathology The high incidence of emotional disorders in volunteers for laboratory experiments had much to do with the decision to consider only candidates with records of effective performance under difficult circumstances in the past. It was hoped that avoiding an open call for volunteers would reduce the number of unstable candidates.

[300] In spite of the preselection process, we were surprised by the low incidence of such disorders in the 55 candidates who were interviewed. For the 31 candidates who survived the initial screening and physical examination, repeat interviews and psychological tests confirmed the original impressions. There was no evidence for a diagnosis of psychosis, clinically significant neurosis, or personality disorder in any member of his group.

Certain general comments can be made concerning the 31 men who received the complete series of selection procedures. The mean age was 33, with a range from 27 to 38. All but one were married. Twenty were from the Midwest, Far West, or Southwest. Only two had lived in large cities before entering college. Twenty-seven were from intact families. Twenty were only or eldest children. (In this connection, it is perhaps worth noting that four of the seven men chosen are named Junior. ) Pronounced identifications with one parent were about equally divided between fathers and mothers although mothers with whom such identifications were present were strong, not infrequently masculine figures.

Impressions from the interviews were that these were comfortable, mature, well-integrated individuals. Ratings in all categories of the system used consistently fell in the top third of the scale. Reality testing, adaptability, and drive were particularly high. Little evidence was found of unresolved conflict sufficiently serious to interfere with functioning. Suggestions of overt anxiety were rare. Defenses were effective tending to be obsessive-compulsive but not to an exaggerated degree. Most were direct, action-oriented individuals, who spend little time introspecting

Although dependency needs were not overly strong, most showed the capacity to relate effectively to others. Interpersonal activities were characterized by knowledge of techniques for dealing w ith many kinds of people. They do not become overly involved with others, although relationships with their families are warm and stable.

Because of the possibility that extreme interest in high performance aircraft might be related to feelings of inadequacy in sexual or other areas, particular emphasis was placed on a review of each candidate's adolescence. Little information could be uncovered to justify the conclusion that unconscious problems of this kind were either more or less common than in other occupational groups.

A high proportion of these men apparently passed through adolescence in comfortable fashion. Most made excellent school and social adjustments. Many had been class presidents or showed other evidence of leadership.

Most candidates entered military life during World War II. Some demonstrated an unusual interest in flying from an early age, but most had about the same attitudes toward airplanes as other American boys . Many volunteered for flight training because it provided career advantages or appeared to be an interesting assignment.

Candidates described their feelings about flying in a variety of terms: "something out of the ordinary," "a challenge," "a chance to get above the hubbub," ''a sense of freedom," "an opportunity to take responsibility." A few look upon flying as a means of proving themselves or to build confidence. Others consider it a "way for good men to show what they can do."

Although half the candidates volunteered for training as test pilots, the others were selected because of achievements in other assignments. Most view test flying as a chance to participate in the development of new aircraft. It enables them to combine their experience as pilots and engineers. Their profession is aviation and they want to be in the forefront of its progress. Danger is admitted, but deemphasized - most feel nothing will happen to them. But this seems to be less a wishful fantasy than a conviction that accidents can be avoided by knowledge and caution. They believe that risks are minimized by thorough planning and conservatism. Very few fit the popular concept of the daredevil test pilot.

Although attempts have been made to formulate the dynamics underlying the pursuit of this unusual occupation, generalizations are difficult to make. Motives vary widely. While it is clear conscious reasons may be unrelated to unconscious determinants, the variation in conscious attitudes illustrates the impossibility of a single explanation for a career which has different meanings or different individuals. One man, for example, stated that he enjoys flight testing because it allows him to do things which are new and different. He enjoys flying the newest aircraft available - vehicles that most pilots will not see for several years. Another is an aeronautical engineer who is primarily interested in aircraft design. He looks upon a flight test much as the researcher views a laboratory experiment.

Reasons for volunteering for Project Mercury show a mixture of professionalism and love of adventure. Candidates are uniformly eager to be part of an undertaking of vast importance. On one hand, space flight is viewed as the next logical step in the progress of aviation; on the other, it represents a challenge. One man expressed the sentiments of the group by saying, "There aren't many new frontiers. This is a chance to be in on one of them.'' Other expressions included "a new dimension of flight," "a further stage in the flight envelope of the manned vehicle," "a chance to [301] get your teeth into something big," "the sequel to the aviation age," a "contribution to human knowledge," "an opportunity for accomplishment," "the program of the future," "an interesting, exciting field," "a chance to be on the ground floor of the biggest thing man has ever done."

At the same time most candidates were practical. They recognized that this project will benefit their careers. To some it is a chance to insure an interesting assignment. Most recognize the trend away from conventional manned aircraft and look upon the Mercury project as a means for getting into the midst of future developments. One said: "We're the last of the horse cavalry. There aren't going to be many more new fighters. This is the next big step in aviation. I want to be part of it." Most are aware of the potential personal publicity and feel this would be pleasant, but "not an important reason for volunteering."

Although all candidates are eager to make the flight, it is not their only concern. Most want to participate in development of the vehicle and have an opportunity to advance their technical training. The orbital ride is partly looked upon as a chance to test an item of hardware they have helped develop. Risks are appreciated, but accepted. Most insist they will go only when the odds favor their return. No one is going up to die. They are attracted by the constructive rather than the destructive aspects of the mission.

Psychological tests of these 31 men indicate a high level of intellectual functioning. For example, the mean full-scale scores for the seven who have been selected range from 130 to 141, with a mean of 135. The pattern is balanced, with consistently high scores on both verbal and performance subtests.

Projective measures suggest the same healthy adaptations seen in the interviews. Responses to the Rorschach for example were well organized. Although not overly rigid, they did not suggest much imagination and creativity. Aggressive impulses tended to be expressed in action rather than

Behavior during the isolation and complex behavior simulator tests - which might be considered input-underload and input-overload situations - showed evidence of great adaptability. No candidate terminated isolation prematurely and none viewed it as a difficult experience. As might be expected for this brief exposure, no perceptual changes were reported. Fifteen subjects "programmed" their thinking in isolation. In five of these men, the attempt to organize thoughts was considered evidence of an overly strong need for structuring. Sixteen permitted random thought, relaxed and enjoyed the experience. Most slept at least part of the time.

When placed under opposite conditions-with too much to do instead of too little- the candidates were usually able to keep from falling hopelessly behind the machine. Only a few were troubled by the impossibility of making all responses promptly. The majority became content to do as well as possible, showing a gradually increasing level of skin resistance, even though working at a frantic pace.

Reactions to physiological stressors correlated positively with the psychiatric evaluations. Candidates who had been ranked highest on psychological variables tended to do best in acceleration noise and vibration, heat, and pressure chamber runs. Their stress tolerance levels were among the highest of the hundreds of men subjected to these procedures m the past. Uncomplaining acceptance of the discomforts and inconveniences of this phase of the program appeared to reflect not only their strong motivation, but also their general maturity and capacity to withstand frustration.

In summary it is suggested that the most reasonable approach to selecting men for doing something no one has done before is to choose those who have been successful in demanding missions in the past To decrease the probability of error, a broad sample of behavior must be observed. Every effort should be made to make these observations as relevant to the expected demands of the mission as possible.

By selecting only those candidates who were able to adapt to whatever conditions confronted them, we hope we have found those who are best qualified for space flight. Our confidence is further strengthened by the attitudes of the men who were chosen. Most reflected the opinion of the candidate who, when asked why he had volunteered, explained: "ln the first 50 years since the Wright brothers, we learned to fly faster than sound and higher than 50,000 feet. In another 5 years, we doubled that. Now we're ready to go out 100 miles. How could anyone turn down a chance to be part of something like this?"

The following are extracts from U.S. Senate, Project Mercury Manned Space Program of the NASA, and "Flight Crew Training Program," NASA General Working Paper 10 022, prepared at Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, and dated Jan. 17,1964. Other items describing the medical and training programs are in publications cited in the "Technical Reports" section of the bibliography.

The initial phase of the astronaut training program is broken down into six areas of activity:

1. Education in the basic sciences - Essentially an academic educational program, this area includes instruction in astronautics, particularly ballistics, trajectories, fuels, guidance, and other aspects of missile operations, basic aviation medecine and orbital flight hygiene, the space environment, astronomy, meteorology, astrophysics, and geography, including the techniques for making scientific observations in these areas.

2. Familiarization with the conditions of space flight - This phase of training is designed to familiarize the astronauts with the heat pressure, G force levels and other special conditions of space flight. It includes periodic simulated flights in centrifuges and pressure chambers, weightless flying, training in human disorientation devices, the development of techniques to minimize the effects of vertigo, and experiments with high heat environments.

This part of the training program will provide data on the ability of the astronaut to contribute to system reliability under the conditions to be encountered during flight, the psychological and physiological effects of the normal and various emergency conditions which may be encountered during flight, and the requirements for the support and restraint systems, the environmental control system, and the crew space layout.

3. Training in the operation of the Mercury space vehicle. - The objective if this segment of the program is to provide a thorough knowledge in the operation and maintenance of the Mercury vehicle and its component subsystems, with particular emphasis being placed on the use and maintenance of the scientific instruments and life-support equipment.

4. Participation in the vehicle development program. - Each of the astronauts is assigned to a system or subsystem of the Mercury vehicle. In this work, he will acquire specialized knowledge of value to the entire group. This information is exchanged in a series of informal seminars. Actual work on the vehicle development program by the astronauts will ,provide limited augmentation of the Space Task Group staff as well as providing them with an intimate knowledge of all aspects of the Mercury vehicle itself.

5. Aviation flight training. - The Mercury astronauts will continue to maintain their proficiency in high performance aircraft in an aviation flight training program. Continued operation of high performance aircraft will give them additional altitude acclimatization, instrument flight training and the physiology of high altitude, high speed flight.

6. Integration of astronaut and ground support and launch crew operation. - Familiarization with the operation of ground support equipment and launch crew operations will be accomplished in coordination with the agencies providing boosters and launch facilities. Training in the operation and use of ground support equipment and observation of launch operations will provide the astronauts with complete knowledge of the launch phase of Mercury flights

Existing research, development, training and test facilities of the armed services, industry and educational institutions throughout the country will be utilized for maximum effectiveness at minimum cost. A number of experts in many of the scientific and technical subject areas will give lectures to the astronauts during their educational program.

The concentrated astronaut education program began with overall program orientation briefings by members of the Space Task Group staff. While assigned to the Langley facility, the Mercury astronauts will work as integrated members of the NASA Space Task Group.

Each of the Mercury astronauts had been detailed to the NASA by his respective military service but is still considered to be on active duty and is receiving military service pay. The astronauts will remain on duty with NASA on a full-time basis.

[303] Completed training activities

1. Visit to McDonnell Aircraft Corp. St. Louis for capsule familiarization.

2. Wright Air Development Center:

(a) General pressure suit indoctrination:

(1) Centrifuge ride using Redstone and Atlas launch profiles.

(2) Reentry heat profile with suits unpressurized but vented.

(3) Pressure chamber run to 100 000 feet with suit pressurized.

(b) Check of low residue diets for 3 days.

3. Naval Medical Research institute of Bethesda Md.:

(a) Determination of basal metabolic rate, cutaneous blood flow rate, and sweat rate at environmental temperatures of 95° F and 114° F.

(b) Familiarization with the effects of excessive carbon dioxide.

4. Visit to Cape Canaveral:

(a) Familiarization with the organization of the Ballistic Missile Division and the Atlantic Missile Range.

(b) Study of launching procedures and missiles under development at Cape Canaveral.

5. Witness of capsule recovery operation on board a naval destroyer.

(a) This recovery took place at sea when the capsule was dropped from a C-130 airplane. from an altitude of 20,000 feet.

6. Skin diving training at Navy Little Creek Amphibious Base.

(a) To simulate the effects of the weightless state and maintain physical fitness of the astronauts.

7. Visit to Army Ballistic Missile Agency.

(a) This trip was to familiarize the astronauts with the Redstone Missile.

8. Acceleration studies with centrifuge at Johnsville.

9. Trip to Convair San Diego for familiarization with the Atlas booster.

(a) Tour of plant facilities.

(b) Study of Atlas construction and operational procedures.

(c) Discussions with Convair engineers.

10. Trip to Edwards Air Force Base for briefing on the X-15 research airplane.

11. Fittings for pressure suits at contractor's (Goodrich) plant.

Future and continuing training activities

1. Study of space mechanics and sciences: This study consists of discussion-type training sessions led by NASA engineers and scientists. Six to ten hours of almost every week have been spent on these subjects.

2. Pressure suit checks in the McDonnell capsule at St. Louis.

3. Specialty work area assignments.

4. Training on NASA space flight simulator to develop physical skills in retrofiring and reentry.

5. Continuation of studies in space mechanics and sciences.

6. Continual participation in the vehicle development program.

7. Continuation of flight and simulator training.

8. Participation in research and development launch and recovery activities

9. Periodic visits to McDonnell for checkout procedures and training.

10. Survival disorientation and communications training at Pensacola Fla.

11. Flights for practice in eating and drinking in the weightless state.

Astronaut specialty area assignments

1. Malcolm S. Carpenter: Communications and navigational aids.

2. Leroy G. Cooper: Redstone booster.

3. John H. Glenn: Crew space layout.

4. Virgil I. Grissom: Automatic and manual attitude control system.

5. Walter M. Schirra: Life support system.

6. Alan B. Shepard: Range tracking and recovery operations.

7. Donald K. Slayton: The Atlas booster.

The Training Phasing Chart (chart 1, section 4.0) is provided to indicate the overall chronological phasing of the training for the preparation of the flight crews for crew assignment to the first manned flights of the projects. The Gemini training for the command and senior astronauts and the astronauts is staggered due to the required time to train the new group. This staggering of the Gemini mission training eliminates the unrealistic trainer time utilization required for preparing the total group simultaneously for the first flights.

The training program is discussed in detail in this section under three major headings: General, Gemini and Apollo training.

3.1. General Training: The training areas that fall under the general heading are those that apply to both projects. These areas are Science and Technology Summary Courses, Operations Familiarization, Environmental Familiarization, Contingency Training, Spacecraft and Launch Vehicle Design and Development and Aircraft Flight Program.

3.1.1. Science and Technology Summary Courses: The Space Science and Technology courses were chosen to fulfill the specific requirements as designated in section 2.0. They are oriented to bring the flight crews to a common level of understanding on the subjects. The majority of these courses are basic in nature with two of them dealing directly with spacecraft systems - Gemini Onboard Computer and Apollo Guidance and Navigation. However, a basic digital computer course is given prior to the specific Gemini computer course and the basic material of inertial guidance systems is covered in conjunction with the Apollo Guidance and Navigation. With a limited amount of training time available, all of the courses are aligned to presenting that portion of the material under the subject title that is pertinent to the work of the flight crews within the projects and missions. Each course is defined in outline form in the Appendix.

A detailed schedule for the academic program is given in section 4.0. On a weekly basis the courses are scheduled on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday for sixteen hours of instruction. The remainder [305] project briefings, systems training, operations familiarization, course field trips, physical fitness, and aircraft flying.

The Science and Space Technology courses are listed below with the number of hours of instruction:

Further instruction in geology after the designated 58 hour course will be scheduled on a frequent basis to prepare the flight crews for exploration of the lunar surface. The general content of the followon program in geology is also indicated in the Appendix.

3.1.2. Operations Familiarization: The flight crews will be familiarized with the operational support required for spaceflight. The following briefings and tours of facilities will be conducted:

1. Gemini Prelaunch Activities (Cape Kennedy) -

Overall prelaunch activities briefing

Tour and briefing on spacecraft and astronaut prelaunch activities (hangar S)

[306] Tour of complex 19 and briefings on launch operation

Briefing at Gemini Control Center on operations and equipment including launch vehicle guidance

Briefing at central control on operation and equipment

2. Apollo Prelaunch Activities (Cape) - Tour and briefing at Saturn launch complex on launch operation.

3. Integrated Mission Control Center - Briefing on Equipment and Operation.

4. Recovery Operations Briefing.

3.1.3. Environmental Familiarization: The areas of the mission environment in which the flight crews will be familiarized are acceleration weightlessness, lunar gravity, vibration and noise, and pressure suit environment.

1. Acceleration - The acceleration familiarization is one of the objectives of the centrifuge programs. The purpose of this training is to minimize possible pilot performance degradation because of accelerations. The second Gemini centrifuge training program is planned to be conducted shortly before the first manned Gemini flights. This program will familiarize the flight crews with launch, selected launch aborts and reentry acceleration profiles A similar centrifuge training program is planned for the Apollo program. The centrifuge programs are discussed in detail in the Gemini and Apollo training portions of this paper.

2. Weightlessness and Lunar Gravity - By means of a modified KC-135 to fly at zero gravity for approximately 30 seconds per parabolic trajectory the flight crews will be exposed to weightlessness. In the same manner the crews will be exposed to lunar gravity (1/6 "g"). Each pilot will receive two flights in the KC-135 with each flight containing 18-20 parabolas. Three pilots can be accommodated on a flight. Therefore, the training will require ten flights (two flights per day for five days) to complete the training for the fourteen astronauts. The 6570th Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, will support and conduct this training.

Within the two KC-135 flights the flight crews win accomplish the following activities:

[307] a. Torque board (small plywood panel with handles on both sides)

b Soaring and tumbling

c. Self-rotation

d. Free-float sensations

e. Eating and drinking

f Hand tool maintenance (untethered)

g. Hand tool maintenance (tethered)

h. Single-impulse mass ejection

i. Tumble and spin recovery

j. Self maneuvering unit flight

k. Fluid dynamics demonstration

I. Coriolis effect demonstration

m. Walking behavior under lunar gravity

The flight crews will practice moving about under lunar traction with the Apollo pressure suit and personal life support system prior to the lunar landing mission. A device consisting of a platform inclined at the correct angle to produce 1/6 gravity for the man suspended perpendicular to the platform by a guywire system will be used. This device is limited to only one direction of motion and will be supplemented by aircraft flights.

3. Vibration and Noise - No special training will be provided in this area. However, exposure to the vibrational modes and noise environment of the launch vehicle is included in the part-task launch abort training to be received on the Ling-Temco-Vought simulator. The noise environment will also be simulated through the headsets in the mission simulators.

4. Pressure Suit - Upon receipt of the training pressure suits the flight crews will be given an indoctrination to the capabilities of the suit. The Space Suit Section of Crew Systems Division will conduct this training in con junction with and post-suit fitting sessions. The content of the indoctrination is listed below:

a. Briefing on suit design and construction

b. Practice donning and doffing suit

c. Experience walking at 3.5 psi differential pressure

d. Experience mobility of suit in spacecraft mock-up at 0, 3.5, and 5.0 psi differential pressures

[308] e. Experience altitude chamber ride for operation of the suit under design conditions

Throughout the different training programs, the pilots will use their pressure suits to become familiar with its operation in the different phases of the mission.

3.1.4. Contingency Training: Those contingency situations that can occur during or after a space flight for which training can reduce the hazards involved are survival after landing in hostile terrain until recovery, ejection and use of the personal parachute.

1. The three basic survival conditions for which training will be accomplished are tropic, desert and water. The purpose of the training is to provide the pilots with the confidence and ability to survive in an emergency landing environment until rescue can be effected. In each case the training is divided into three phases: lectures and briefings on survival concepts, techniques and skills demonstrations of the survival methods; and field experience to apply the knowledge gained from the first two phases.

a. Tropic Survival - The five day course in tropical survival will be supported by the USAF Tropic Survival School, Albrook Air Force Base, Panama Canal Zone. The first two days will be lectures and demonstrations and the next three days will be field training. The academics will include lectures on the major types of tropical rain forests, tropic plants and animals as applicable to survival, terrain, travel, self first-aid, use of kit equipment, and contacting indigenous people.

The demonstrations include shelter construction, improvising equipment, building animal snares and traps, and signaling.

Two days will be spent at field sites with one day required to travel to and from the field area. In the field the crews will be split into teams of two men each, as the case would be in Gemini, and assigned an area for their campsite out of sight and hearing of the other teams. One instructor is assigned to two teams to monitor their activities and give advice when necessary. Each man will have the same equipment as he would have in an actual survival situation. In the field training the flight crews will receive first-hand experience in procuring food, establishing a camp, improvising equipment and [309] clothing and signaling rescue aircraft in the tropical environment.

b. Desert Survival - The desert survival course will be a five day course implemented in the same manner as the tropic survival. The Air Force Survival School, 3635th Flying Training Wing, Stead Air Force Base, Nevada, will provide the instruction formulated around space flight mission requirements. One and one-half days of academics will be received on the characteristics of world desert areas and survival techniques. One day of demonstrations will be given at the field site on the proper use and care of the survival equipment, and the use of the parachute in the construction of clothing, shelters and signals. The field training will be conducted in an area considered representative of many of the world's desert regions. As in the tropic survival field training the teams of two pilots each will spend two days at remote sites practicing desert survival techniques in practical training.

c. Water Survival - The one-half day academic portion of the water survival training will be given by Dr. D. Stullken of the Recovery Operations Division. Dr. Stullken's lecture will cover the following topics: requirements for human survival; food and water requirements and sources at sea; progressive aspects of survival; effects of drinking sea water.

For the practical experience in water survival one day of activities is scheduled at the Water Safety and Survival School, Naval School of Preflight, Pensacola, Florida. They will conduct the following training in their enclosed tank without and with the pressure suits: basic swimming strokes; underwater escape from a cockpit; life raft boarding; parachute water landing; helicopter rescue by sling and seat; parachute drag escape; parachute engulfment and shroudline entanglement.

The survival equipment will also be exercised during the water egress training.

2. Ejection Seat Training - Each pilot will receive two rides on the Gemini ejection seat tower at the Air Crew Equipment Laboratory, Philadelphia Naval Base, Pennsylvania. The purpose of this training is to familiarize the crew with the seat operation, build their confidence in using the seat and obtain ejection slump measurements for each pilot for adjusting the C.G. of the [310] Gemini seat for the actual flights. The two rides, one at 8 "g's" and 1 at 12 "g's" at approximately 250 "g's" per second onset rate, will be completed for three pilots each day of operation

The slump data is recorded by cameras and the seat acceleration data is telemetered from the seat and presented on in oscillograph recorder The data obtained will be extrapolated to the design limits of the Gemini ejection seat of 22 "g's" per second onset rate by correlating this data with the data received from the test program completed in July 1963.

3. Parachute Training - To prepare the flight crews for the contingency situation of using the personal parachute during a space flight mission, instruction in parachuting will be given the pilots The course has been designed to train the flight crews in the areas of parachute landing, parachute maneuvering to avoid ground obstacles and parachute drag after landing. By far the majority of non-fatal injuries that occur in parachuting are attributed to these three areas. An area of concern on high altitude ejection is free fall, which will be covered by a comprehensive briefing. Since the use of the personal parachute could occur over land or water, the training considers both contingencies

The parachute training will be conducted on a very low risk basis by the use of the Para-Commander parachute built by the Pioneer Parachute Company. The safety of this parachute is inherent in its method of operation which also makes it particularly suited for training. This parachute is an ascending parachute when towed behind a vehicle with a long tow line The distinct advantages of this canopy are: the jumper has a fully inflated and stable canopy before leaving the ground; and, the rate of descent can be controlled by the towing velocity to increase the landing velocity in increments from a light to a free descent landing.

The following paragraphs outline each phase of the training as they will be accomplished:

a. Parachute Landing Fall - Ground School - Four Hours - This training will consist of demonstrations, instruction, and supervised practice in "prepare-to-land" position, touchdown, roll procedures and canopy securing. Initial training will be on the ground, the second phase from a raised platform.

[311] b. Launch Procedure - 15 minutes - This training is particular to the ascension canopy and is conducted at the time of the first flight on the parachute. This training will consist of equipment checkout and launch procedure.

c. Parachute Landing Fall - Towed Flight and Landing - One and one-half per man - This phase is supervised training in actual parachute landings. Each pilot will make five towed parachute landings ranging from light to normal parachute impact.

d. Canopy Manipulation - Ground School - One-half hour - Ground training will be conducted in parachute skip and turn control by riser manipulation.

e. Canopy Manipulation - Free Descent - One hour per man - This phase consists of supervised training in actual canopy manipulation. Each pilot will make three free descents in which programmed turns and slips will be executed. The training will be accomplished by towing the trainee to altitude and releasing the tow line to provide free descent.

f. Parachute Water Landing - (Ground School) - Four hours - This phase consists of demonstration, instruction and supervised practice in water impact and harness and equipment release.

g. Parachute Water Landing - Towed Flight and Landing - One hour per man, Supervised training in actual water landings will be conducted with each pilot making three descents into the water and completing water landing procedures.

h. Free Fall Technique - Four Hour briefing - A briefing on the techniques of free fall stabilization and maneuvering will conclude the parachute training program.

3.1.5. Spacecraft and Launch Vehicle Design and Development: The pilots will participate in and contribute to spacecraft and launch vehicle design and development, by means of the activities listed below:

1. Participate in spacecraft and launch vehicle engineering and mock-up reviews.

[312] 2. Participate in specific contractor and MSC design and development studies and simulations.

3. Attend the various internal and contractor meetings which are of concern to the pilots.

4. Participate in pressure suit and personal equipment develop

5. Follow project ground test programs.

6. Follow the development of preflight test program of spacecraft

3.1.6. Aircraft Flight Program: Spacecraft flight readiness will be maintained through the use of T-33, F-102, and T-38 type aircraft assigned to MSC and based at Ellington Air Force Base.

A two-week course in flying helicopters will be provided the pilots by the Naval School of Preflight, Pensacola, Florida, with a continuing program conducted at Ellington Air Force Base. The helicopter flying will prepare the flight crews for further simulations of the lunar landing.

3.2. Gemini Training.

3.2.1. Project Briefings and Systems Training: This training will familiarize the flight crews with the total Gemini Project starting with a description of the mission to be performed and progressing to the launch vehicle systems, the spacecraft systems and crew station

1. Mission Profiles - The following Gemini mission considerations will be presented to the pilots over a two day period:

Movie - "Gemini Project"

Mission Objectives

Launch Schedule

Spacecraft Description - Configuration and Modular Design

Gemini; Agena Mission Phases

[313] Launch Window Constraints

Rendezvous Trajectories and Techniques

Entry - primary and backup procedures

2. Launch Vehicle Briefing - The launch vehicle briefing will be conducted by the Martin Marietta Corporation over a two day period at the Manned Spacecraft Center. The briefing is of sixteen hours duration and is presented in two phases. Phase I is devoted to discussion of all airborne systems to a functional block diagram analysis level including systems interface. Phase II consists of discussions of vehicle and subsystems flight characteristics directly affecting manned flight

Phase I - Airborne Systems (Day 1)-

LV Familiarization - The basic structure, weights, and other physical characteristics of the launch vehicle. Also, major modifications made to the Titan II in conversion to the Gemini launch vehicle.

LV Electrical System - Power sources, distribution and the flight sequencing functions of the electrical system.

Propulsion and Propellant Systems - A functional analysis of engine operation, of the major engine components, characteristics of the propulsion system, the propellants, their fees, monitoring, temperature conditioning, and physical characteristics.

Guidance and Controls - Functional loop analysis of the flight controls and the MOD III G Radio Guidance Systems, block diagram discussions of the primary and secondary flight control system, a flow and component analysis of the hydraulic system, the guidance/control interface and basic flight sequencing.

Malfunction Detection System - Detection philosophy and basic system operation.

Range Safety and Ordnance Systems - The philosophy of and components used by the range safety and ordnance systems.

Instrumentation System - Airborne telemetry system, major [314] vehicle parameters to be monitored, block diagram analysis of the monitoring equipment.

AGE Philosophy and Countdown Techniques - Type of equipment used in checkout and launch of the vehicle and analysis of the countdown activities.

Phase II - Vehicle Parameters and Performance (Day 2)-

Flight Dynamics - Analysis of launch vehicle parameters.

Guidance and Controls - The parameters of control and guidance - both open and closed loop.

Propulsion System - System performance characteristics; effects of attitudes, propellant conditioning, effect of vibration on vehicle performance and changes being made to eliminate these vibrations.

Failure Modes and Abort Studies - Malfunction events and their resulting effect upon vehicle behavior and pilot escape, the relative probability of malfunctions by subsystem and steps taken to assure maximum astronaut survival.

3. Spacecraft Systems Briefings and System Trainer Operation - A 30-hour set of briefings extending over one week on the Gemini spacecraft systems will be presented to the flight crews. These lectures are operationally and sequentially oriented and will utilize the Gemini Systems Trainers extensively. In order to provide the class with a background in cockpit layout, an introduction to controls and displays will be given by Crew Station Branch before the systems lectures. Courses will be presented by qualified MAC instructors who will detail the normal modes of system operation, the alternate modes, and the functional relationships of components and subsystems. The instructors will be assisted by systems experts from the various engineering departments of MAC who will supply the design philosophies and backgrounds of each system. The schedule for the Gemini spacecraft systems briefings is:

Monday - Controls and Displays, Attitude and Maneuver Control System

[315] Tuesday - Attitude and Maneuver Control System

Wednesday - Electrical Power Generation and Distribution, Sequential System

Thursday - Environmental Control System, Propulsion Systems

Friday - Instrumentation, Communications

4. Crew Station - In the systems briefings the systems controls and displays will be discussed system by system without the total crew station being available. Therefore, the pilots will spend some time in the Gemini Mission Simulator to become familiar with the total crew station geometry. At this time engineers from the Flight Crew Support Division will be on hand to discuss the crew station with the individual pilots and answer their respective questions.

3.2.2. Part Task Training: The Gemini Part Task Training will prepare the crews for and supplement the mission simulator training in the retrofire reentry control tasks. The trainer has the capability of providing the retrofire and reentry control tasks in the rate command and direct control modes. Retrofire capabilities consist of variable thrust alinement, variable firing sequence, and failure of one or more retrorockets to fire. Four reentry profiles have been preprogramed: a constant lift trajectory, two roll modulated trajectories for correcting down range and cross range errors, and a zero lift trajectory. Approximately ten hours training per pilot will be completed, which will be dependent on the individual's needs.

The Farrand Visual Display System is being modified to provide a visual docking simulation of the Agena target in con junction with a star background with a range capability of 50 nautical miles to docking. Although it is basically a research tool, it will also be a valuable supplement to the docking and Gemini mission trainers for night rendezvous at an earlier date than the GMS external display system. Each pilot will be scheduled for several sessions of this simulator.

3.2.3. Launch Vehicle Abort Training: The launch abort training will be accomplished on the Ling-Temco-Vought moving base simulator to provide a high fidelity simulation including the kinesthetic cues of a wide variety of Gemini normal and malfunction launch trajectories.

[316] In the simulation the launch abort instrumentation of the left hand portion of the Gemini panel will duplicate the spacecraft pane with the indicator lights, accelerometer, flight director attitude indicator analog tank pressure gauges, and the event timer. The launch vehicle controls will also be duplicated from the spacecraft.

The categories of training runs to be simulated are:

1. Normal launch or variation of limits of normal launch

2. Engine failures - partial or total loss of thrust

3. Sequential failure

4. Pressurization and propellant failures

5. Guidance failures

6. Spacecraft and instrument failures

7. Ordnance and electrical failures

8. Double failures

One week prior to the start of the simulation all the flight crews participating will receive a thorough briefing at MSC on the abort situations to be simulated, the cockpit indications of the impending failure and interpretation of these indications, the action to be taken and the ground rules for the launch abort simulation. At that time a briefing package of the launch vehicle characteristics and their mechanization in the simulator will be distributed.

The training on the simulator will consist of six two-hour sessions which will result in approximately 150 runs. Two pilots will alternate between sessions to receive two sessions a day for three consecutive days. Before the first session a short review briefing will be held at the contractor's plant to review the ground rules, simulator limitations and answer questions. The first day of running will be familiarization runs which will familiarize the pilots to the different types of failure situations. Approximately 50 familiarization runs will be completed. These runs will be quickened where possible by starting the run just prior to the initiation of the effect of the malfunction. During the familiarization runs the malfunction to be simulated will be discussed before and after each run. For the four remaining sessions the malfunctions will be programed at random to include variations of the normal launch.

[317] The number of runs of a particular type will be determined by its difficulty to successfully abort and the probability of the malfunction.

3.2.4 .Egress Training: The Gemini Egress Training Program consists of four training sessions plus full scale recovery training for the specific mission crew and backup crew thirty days prior to flight date.

Session One will be held at the Spacecraft Flotation Tank, Ellington Air Force Base. Training will consist of briefing on sink rate, sink attitude, underwater egress techniques, and a film on underwater escapes from boilerplate spacecraft. Two astronauts will be scheduled per session.

Session Two will also be conducted at the Flotation Tank. Training will consist of E.C.S. operation, personal equipment operation, and familiarization with flotation characteristics, and surface egress techniques and practice.

Session Three will be aboard the spacecraft handling ship "Retriever" in Galveston Bay or the Gulf of Mexico. Training will consist of demonstration of flotation characteristics on the open water, possible flooding effects, surface egress practice, and use of Gemini survival gear.

Session Four will also be aboard the spacecraft handling ship "Retriever" in the Gulf or Bay. Training will consist of practicing preimpact and impact procedures, operation of radios and E.C.S. equipment, snorkel and cabin vent valve operation, flotation collar, and shipboard egress.

Refresher training for each specific mission crew and backup crew will be held in open water near Cape Kennedy, Florida, during the full scale recovery exercises approximately 30 days prior to each flight.

Portions of the Egress Training Program may be modified at a later date as a result of the test/evaluation/development program managed by Recovery Operations Division. Participation of the Flight Crew Support Division and Flight Crews is required during the test evaluation phase to assure proper continuity and development of preliminary operating procedures to be further developed and perfected by all flight personnel during the egress training program.

[319] 3.2.5. Centrifuge Training: A second Gemini centrifuge program will be accomplished at the Aviation Medical Acceleration Laboratory, NADC, Johnsville, Pennsylvania, (See chart IV, section 4 0) The objectives of the program are: familiarization with Gemini accelerations profiles and control task training during reentry accelerations for the new crew personnel and refresher training in the Gemini acceleration profiles for the assigned Gemini crews.

The Gemini I centrifuge fixture (updated) will be used for the program. The simulation will be similar to the Gemini I program, that is, launch is open loop and reentry profiles generated from modified six degree-of-freedom equations of motion with altitude time rate of change preprogramed Each pilot will accomplish the following runs:

1. Normal launch and reentry with half down range reentry profile.

2. Normal launch and reentry with zero lift reentry profile

3. Normal launch and reentry with intermediate down range reentry profile.

4. Launch abort and associated reentry. Abort prior to staging due to engine failure.

5. Launch abort and associate reentry. Abort at T + 150 seconds simulating second stage ignition failure.

3.2.6. General Mission Training: The mission training phase of the Gemini training will provide the crews with training in both normal and abnormal spacecraft and spacecraft systems operation. The Gemini mission simulator supplemented by the systems trainers, briefings and the docking trainer will be used to provide this training.

The mission training is divided into four phases: familiarization, system failure training, general mission training with random malfunctions and docking training. A brief description of each phase is as follows:

1. Familiarization - The purpose of this phase of the mission training program is to thoroughly indoctrinate crew members with Gemini spacecraft systems and their normal operation throughout an entire "normal" mission profile. Since the visual display system will not be available until later, all control will be done on instruments. Implementation of this phase is as follows:

Systems Trainers - A thorough review of the systems and their normal operation will be conducted prior to the crew's participation on the GMS. This review will emphasize system operation [320] during typical orbital and rendezvous missions. These briefings will be operationally oriented and as detailed as possible.

Gemini Mission Simulator (14 hours) - Each pilot will complete seven familiarization sessions of approximately two hours each on the Gemini Mission Simulator, five of which will be in the left seat and two in the right seat.

Familiarization Sessions:

Session No. 1 - Left Seat - Attitude and maneuvering control practice using the various control modes. Included in this session will be retrofire attitude control and platform alignment procedures.

Session No. 2 - Left Seat and Session No. 3 - Right Seat, Typical launch (through insertion and initial platform alignment) and reentries (from final platform alignment to impact). Insertion parameters such as velocity correction required by pilot to obtain nominal orbit and impact points of the reentry footprint will be varied.

Session No. 4 - Left Seat - Three orbit mission.

Session No. 5 - Left Seat, and Session No. 6 - Right Seat, Typical rendezvous and catch-up maneuvers.

Session No. 7 - Left Seat - Normal mission with rendezvous at first apogee.

2. System Failure Training - The purpose of this phase of the mission training is to thoroughly prepare the flight crews in system failure detection analysis, correction, and/or alternate procedures. Failures primarily dependent upon criticality of mission success and secondarily upon probability of occurrence will be emphasized. This phase of the program will require approximately ten weeks. Generally, the first day of each week will be utilized to cover a particular system on the system trainers or by briefings attended by all crew members. The remaining four days of each week will consist of the application of this information by individual crew members on the mission simulator.

A brief outline of this phase of training is provided on the next page.

3. Mission Training with Random Malfunctions (24 Hours) - This phase consists of 12 sessions per pilot on the GMS of which 8 sessions/pilot will be in left seat and 4 sessions/pilot in the right seat. A preselected list of random malfunctions will be programed for each session. Usually these malfunctions will not require an aborted or early termination of the mission, however, one session will concentrate on launch abort problems. The sessions will be divided as follows:

Session 19 - Left Seat, and Session 20 - Right Seat - Three orbit mission.

[322] Session 21 - Left Seat - Three orbit mission.

Session 22 - Left Seat, and Session 2 3 - Right Seat - Launch Abort problems.

Session 24 - Left Seat - Three orbit mission (in pressure suit)

Session 25 - Left Seat, and Session 26 - Right Seat - Rendezvous mission with rendezvous at first apogee.

Session 27 - Left Seat, and Session 28 - Right Seat - Rendezvous mission utilizing slow catch-up procedure.

Session 29 - Left Seat - Same as Session 25.

Session 30 - Left Seat - Same as Session 26.

4. Translation and Docking Training - The program utilizing the MSC docking trainer, consists of eight sessions of approximately two and one-half hours each. In addition each pilot will occupy the right seat during Session No. 1. Normally twelve runs will be made per session half of which will be made with no scheduled failures. A typical docking maneuver includes the following operations, (starting from various initial conditions and closure rates); alignment of spacecraft with the Agena, maneuver into docking cone, engagement, latch-on, rigidize, docking tasks unlatch, maneuver out of docking cone.

Session 1 will be a familiarization session with six nominal runs and six non-nominal runs. The non-nominal runs are for demonstration purposes. Four runs will be made in each mode of operation. Failures will be demonstrated and corrective action taken by the pilot. One pilot will ride as observer in the right seat while the pilot in the left seat controls attitude translation.

Session 2 will consist of practice in Rate Command Mode with six nominal and six non-nominal runs scheduled. All control is from left seat with one pilot onboard.

Session 3 will consist of practice in Pulse Mode with six nominal and six non-nominal runs scheduled with one pilot onboard. All control is from the left seat.

[323] Session 4 will consist of practice in Direct Mode with six nominal and six non-nominal runs. One pilot onboard. Control is from the left seat.

Session 5 will consist of task sharing between the left and right seat positions. The pilot in the left seat will control translation and the pilot in the right seat will control attitude. Two runs will be made in each of the three modes of operation. Each pilot will make six runs in each seat. No malfunctions are scheduled.

Session 6 consists of task sharing utilizing the Rate Command Control Mode. Six runs will be nominal and six runs will include non-nominal run conditions. Each pilot will make six runs in each seat.

Session 7 is a task sharing utilizing the Rate Command Control Mode. Six runs will be nominal and six runs will be non-nominal. Each pilot will make six runs in each seat.

Session 8 consists of task sharing utilizing the direct" control mode during six nominal and six non-nominal runs. Each pilot will make six runs in each seat.

Approximately sixteen failures may be simulated on the trainer with up to four failures occurring at any one time. Only thirteen failures can be simulated for which the pilot may take corrective action and continue the rendezvous. Three failures can be simulated which would probably require abort of the rendezvous, namely - OR LOGIC roll, OR LOGIC yaw, and maneuver malfunctions. Corrective action which may be accomplished by the pilots consists of switching ACME Logic from PRImary and SECondary, switching gyros from PRlmary to SECondary, switching ATTITUDE CONTROL MODE, switching ATTITUDE DRIVERS or MANEUVER DRIVERS to SECondary. A failure analysis for the translation and docking trainer is included in the appendix.

Failures to be simulated are as follows:

1. OAMS ATTITUDE DRIVERS

2. OAMS MANEUVER DRIVERS

3. OR LOGIC ROLL

4. OR LOGIC YAW

[324] 5. COMMUNICATIONS L. SEAT TO R. SEAT

6. COMMUNICATIONS R. SEAT TO L. SEAT

7. DIRECT MODE

8. PULSE MODE

9 RATE COMMAND MODE

10. RATE GYRO - ROLL

11. RATE GYRO - PITCH

12. RATE GYRO - YAW

13. ACME LOGIC - ROLL

14. ACME LOGIC - PITCH

15. ACME LOGIC - YAW

16. MANEUVER MALFUNCTIONS

Outlines of the sessions as well as possible failures are shown below. Specific failures on a run to run basis will be detailed shortly prior to commencement of this training and at a time when simulation requirements can be better assessed.

3.3. Apollo Training.

3.3.1. Project Briefings: This training will familiarize the flight crews with the Apollo mission and the present state of development of the spacecraft and launch vehicle.

1. Mission Profiles - The following Apollo mission considerations will be presented to the pilots over a two day period:

Movie - "Apollo Project"

Launch Schedules

General Launch Vehicle Descripion- S-1B, S-V

[325] General Spacecraft Description (Command, Service and Lunar Excursion Modules)

Lunar Landing Mission Profile

Earth Orbit

Translunar

Lunar

Transearth

Entry and Landing

Abort Considerations

3.3.2. Launch Vehicle Briefing: The Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama, will give the flight crews a briefing on the S-1B and S-V launch vehicles and their systems and a tour of MSFC's facilities

3.3.3. Systems Familiarization Briefings: A series of familiarization briefings on Apollo CMiSM and LEM spacecraft systems will be given the flight crews. These briefings are intended to provide background knowledge in systems operation to facilitate the overall mission study. The various systems to be covered include: Guidance and Navigation, Stabilization and Control, Reaction Control, Spacecraft Propulsion, Power Generation and Distribution, Sequential Circuits, Environmental Control, Communication and Instrumentation.

[326] Chart I. Training Phasing.

[327] Chart II. Crew Training Equipment Schedule.

[328] Chart III. Academic Training Schedule.

[329] Chart IV. Overall Training Schedule.

The tables, charts, and figures presented here are extracted directly from relevant technical reports that are identified in the bibliography. These extracts are not intended to provide a complete overview of all medical investigations conducted during these series. Rather, they are intended (1) to show the range of medical investigations conducted, (2) to show the growth and sophistication of medical investigations, and (3) to allow easy comparison of the separate missions along specific medical parameters For a complete review of all biomedical investigations and findings, refer to relevant technical reports.

A. General Clinical Evaluations and Findings

[332] Table 16-VI. Peak Heart Rates During Launch and Reentry.

[333] Apollo Group Mean Values for Preflight Summary and Postflight Orthostatic Evaluations.

[334] Apollo Group Mean Values for Preflight Summary and Postflight Orthostatic Evaluations.

[335-336] Urinalysis. Table XI.- Urine Analysis (MA-9 Flight).

[337] Urinalysis. Gemini VII Urine Chemistries [All dates 1965].

[338] Apollo Twenty-Four Urine Results.

[339] Serum and Plasma Enzymes Summary (MR-3 Flight); Astronaut Peripheral Blood Values (MA-7 Flight).

[340] Blood Chemistry Findings (MR-4 Flight); Gemini VII Blood Chemistry Studies for Command Pilot.

[341] Routine Hematology Tests - Apollo; Table 2. Special Hematology Tests.

[342] Summary of Apollo Hematology Results.

[343] Summary of Changes in Red Cell Metabolic Constituents (Preflight vs Immediate Postflight Periods).

Red Cell Shape Classification.

[344] Hematology and Blood Chemistry (continued).

[345] Summary of Apollo Serum Protein Results.

[346] Biochemistry. Normal Biochemistry Values for Apollo Astronaut Population.

[347] Biochemistry (continued). Apollo Biochemical Laboratory Techniques.

[348] Biochemistry (continued). Summary of Apollo Serum Biochemistry Results.

[349] Biochemistry (continued). Summary of Apollo Serum Biochemistry Results.

[350] Biochemistry (continued). Significant Serum Biochemistry Changes.

Nutrition Studies: Fluid Intake and Output (MA-6 Flight).

Flight Crew Weight Loss to the Nearest Half Pound.

[351] Nutrition Studies (continued). Figure 16-16. Caloric Intake on Gemini VII.

[352] Nutrition Studies (continued). Figure 16-14. Caloric Intake on Gemini IV.

[353] Nutrition Studies (continued). Total Weight Changes During and Following the Apollo Missions (values in kilograms).

[354] Nutrition Studies (continued). Balance of Water, Calcium, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Sodium During Apollo 17 Mission.

[355] Nutrition Studies (continued). Intake and Absorption Data - Apollo 16.

[356] Nutrition Studies (continued). Intake and Absorption Data - Apollo 16.

[357] Nutrition Studies (continued). Intake and Absorption Data - Apollo 16.

[358] Nutrition Studies (continued). Intake and Absorption Data - Apollo 16.

[359] Nutrition Studies (continued). Intake and Absorption Data - Apollo 16 (continued).

[360] Nutrition Studies (continued). Nutrient Intake During Apollo Missions.

[361] Nutrition Studies (continued). Apollo Inflight Energy Intake Based on Body Weight.

Comparison of Apollo Inflight and Ground-Based Average Energy Intake.

[362] Cardiovascular Studies. Summary of Blood-Pressure Data (MA-8 Flight).

[363] Cardiovascular Studies (continued). Summary of Heart Rate and Respiration Data from Physiological Monitoring (MA-8 Flight).

[364] Cardiovascular Studies (continued). Summary of Tilt Studies (MA-9 Flight).

[365] Cardiovascular Studies (continued). Physiological Measurements Made Before, During, and After Exercise Stress.

[366] Cardiovascular Studies (continued). Physiological Measurements Made Before, During, and After Exercise Stress- Apollo.

[367] Cardiovascular Studies (continued). Physiological Measurements Made Before, During, and After Exercise Stress.

[368] Musculokeletal Studies. Bone Mineral Change Related to Calcium Intake.

Mineral Changes in Other Bones Studied by X-Ray Densitometry.

[369] Microbiology. Figure 1. Crew bacteriology protocol for aerobic scheme.

[370] Microbiology, continued. Figure 2. Crew bacteriology protocol for anaerobic scheme.

[371] Microbiology, continued. Figure 3. Crew mycology protocol.

[372] Table 10. Medically Important Microorganisms Isolated from the Apollo CM.

[373] Figure 10-2. Heart rates from underwater simulations.

[374] Extravehicular Activity Studies, continued.

[375] Extravehicular Activity Studies, continued. Figure 1. Heart rates and calculated metabolic rates of the Apollo 15 Commander during EVA-1.

[376] Extravehicular Activity Studies, continued. Metabolic Expenditures for the Apollo 15 Commander during EVA-1.

[377] Extravehicular Activity Studies, continued. Metabolic Expenditures During Apollo Lunar Surface Extravehicular Activities.