[45] In this Appendix the discussion is limited to the scope of the contracts, the dates that they were in effect, and the principal investigators involved. Individual abstracts of these contracts appear below in chronological order. No effort is made to describe and evaluate the results obtained from these contracts. The George Washington University Biological Sciences Communication Project (BSCP) has recently published a comprehensive Bibliography of Scientific Publications and Presentations Relating to Planetary Quarantine, 1966-1971 (GWU-BSCP 73-1OP; 1973). This bibliography lists contract reports, as well as publications in the open literature, by both contractors and outside researchers. It includes some 1300 references and is well indexed. Anyone wanting to look further into research accomplishments is referred to this document. Copies of the documentated research reports and published research articles can be obtained from BSCP.
|
Institution |
|
|
. | |
|
Atomic Energy Commission, Sandia Laboratories |
1966 |
|
Avco Corporation |
1965 |
|
Becton, Dickinson & Co., Research Center |
1968 |
|
Dudley Observatory, New York State Department of Health |
1965 |
|
Dynamic Science Corporation |
1961 |
|
[46] Florida State University, Department of Statistics |
1966 |
|
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation |
1961 |
|
Hardin-Simmons University |
1972 |
|
Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute |
1961 |
|
Jet Propulsion Laboratory |
1959 |
|
Massachusetts Institute of Technology |
1962 |
|
Naval Biomedical Research Laboratory |
1972 |
|
North Dakota State University, Department of Polymers and Coatings |
1968 |
|
Northrop Corporation, Northrop Space Laboratories |
1965 |
|
St. John's University, Department of Biology |
1964 |
|
Stanford Research Institute |
1972 |
|
Syracuse University, Biological Research Laboratories |
1964 |
|
University of Minnesota, Department of Environmental Health |
1964 |
|
U.S. Army Biological Laboratories |
1959 |
|
U.S. Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control-Atlanta |
1964 |
|
U.S. Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control-Phoenix |
1964 |
|
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Cincinnati |
1965 |
|
Wilmot Castle Company |
1961 |
Institution
U.S. Army Biological Laboratories, Ft. Detrick, Frederick, Maryland 21701
Principal investigators
Charles R. Phillips, Robert K. Hoffman, Herbert M. Decker, Dorothy M. Portner, David R. Spiner
Starting Date: 1959
Termination Date: 1972
Scope:
Initially this interagency agreement was to make available to NASA experience with sterilization techniques for various types of laboratory and military hardware, particularly through the use of ethylene oxide. Later studies included the determination of buried contamination in plastics and electronic components used in spacecraft and between mated surfaces; dry heat sterilization for buried contamination; other types of chemical sterilization, [47] particularly with formaldehyde and peracetic acid; sterilization of fluids, either gaseous or liquid, by filtration; the effect of ultra-high vacuum on microorganisms; the long-time buildup of contamination on surfaces exposed to either laboratory or clean-room atmospheres, with the finding of the so-called plateau phenomenon where contamination leveled off after long exposure; and other short-range experiments.
For the Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston, help was given in planning for the Lunar Receiving Laboratory and in testing the Mobile Quarantine Facility and the astronauts' Biological Isolation Garment.
Under subcontract, the American Sterilization Company developed an ethylene oxide exposure chamber in which the resistance of spacecraft components to this sterilizing technique could be determined.
Institution
Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute, 10 West 35th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60616
Principal investigators
Richard Ehrlich, Ervin J. Hawrylewicz, Charles A. Hagen
Starting Date: 1961
Termination Date: 1969
Scope:
The research program involved studies of the survival of terrestrial aerobic and anerobic microorganisms in simulated extraterrestrial environments. Of prime importance was the viability of vegetative microorganisms and the rate of germination of bacterial spores after various lengths of exposure to simulated Martian environment. The environmental parameters of interest were the composition of gaseous atmosphere, pressure, composition of soil, presence of available water, and diurnal temperature fluctuations. The experimental program was designed to provide information required to estimate the probability of contamination of Mars and other planets.
Institution
Wilmot Castle Company, Rochester, New York 14602
Principal investigators
Carl W. Bruch, Martin G. Koesterer, Mary K. Bruch, Norman Davis, Robert R. Ernst
Starting Date: 1961
Termination Date: 1964
Scope:
This work consisted of a survey of dry heat resistance of various spore-forming microorganisms, including a laboratory study of [48] reaction rates at various temperatures and how this was affected by various protective agents such as dirt or soil.
Institution
Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, Bethpage, L.I., New York
Principal investigators
Robert J. Del Vecchio, Raymond Davis, K.M. Forman
Starting Date: 1961
Termination Date: 1968
Scope:
The program involved a study of the influence of a closed, artificial environment on the growth and viability of certain terrestrial bacteria, including the development of sampling devices and techniques to determine the microbial contamination of aerospace-controlled environments and a review of information on the environments of Mercury, Venus, and Mars.
Institution
Dynamic Science Corporation, 1445 Huntington Drive, South Pasadena, California 91030
Principal investigators
John B. Opfell, Curtis E. Miller, Allan I Louderback, Earl G. McNall, William T. Duffy
Starting Date: 1961
Termination Date: 1965
Scope:
The work incorporated evaluation of various liquid sterilants used in spacecraft sterilization, preparation of a sterilization handbook, and study of the recovery of microorganisms inoculated into solid propellants.
Institution
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Cambridge, Mass. 02319
Principal investigators
Gerald J. Silverman, Norman S. Davies, Cecil G. Dunn
Starting Date: 1962
Termination Date: ]968
Scope:
Two main investigations were undertaken. The first was in collaboration with National Research Corporation (as a subcontractor) and measured the effect of simulated extraterrestrial environments (mainly the effects of ultra-high vacuum, temperature, ultraviolet [49] light, gamma radiation, and similar features) on microbial survival.
The second program concerned dry heat resistance of microbial spores as influenced by internal and external moisture. The effects of either were dramatic; water, even at temperatures over 100°C, could be highly protective or, if present at too great a level, destructive.
Institution
Syracuse University, Biological Research Laboratories, Syracuse, N.Y. 13210
Principal investigators
Ralph A. Slepecky, Jere Northrop, John Gillis
Starting Date: 1964
Termination Date: 1967
Scope:
This was primarily a theoretical study of the greatly enhanced resistance of bacterial spores over that of vegetative cells.
The research program was concerned with the relationship of metal content to resistance, dormancy, and germination of bacterial spores and sporulation of bacterial spore formers: the metal composition of intact spores; the relative binding of metals to the spore; the kinetics of metal release on germination; the kinetics of metal incorporation as correlated with sporulation stages; and various relationships between metals and resistance of spores.
Institution
St. John's University, Department of Biology, Jamaica, N.Y. 11432
Principal investigators
Michael A. Pisano, Raymond M.G. Boucher, George T. Tortora, I. Edward Alcamo
Starting Date: 1964
Termination Date: 1967
Scope:
Studies were conducted on the effect of acoustic vibrations in connection with gaseous sterilizing agents to see if the rate of sterilization could be increased. Preliminary studies were done with ethylene oxide, and the synergistic effect of high-intensity airborne sound waves with propylene oxide were studied more intensively.
Institution
University of Minnesota, Division of Environmental Health, Minneapolis, Minn. 55455
Principal investigators
Richard G. Bond, George S. Michaelsen, Irving J. Pflug, V.W. Greene, Donald Vesley, Jacob E. Bearman
[50] Starting Date: 1964
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
Under a series of grants and contracts, the University of Minnesota has undertaken a training research program for the NASA Planetary Quarantine Office and has established a Space Science Center on their Minneapolis campus. Not only has training taken place at the Center, but a teaching group has given short courses at various locations across the U.S.
The research program at the Space Science Center has been on environmental sterilization. Particular attention has been given to dry heat sterilization, and to developing destruction rate data on mated surfaces and with encapsulated microorganisms as well as those on open surfaces. The role of moisture in dry heat sterilization has been studied and theories developed on the mechanisms involved.
Institution
U.S. Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control, Phoenix Laboratories, Phoenix, Arizona 85014
Principal investigators
Martin S. Favero, John R. Puleo, Norman J. Petersen, Walter W. Bond, Gerald J. Tritz, Gordon S. Oxborrow, Norman D. Fields, James H. Marshall
Starting Date: 1964
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
Under an interagency agreement, work was undertaken on methods for quantitatively recovering microorganisms and bacterial spores from surfaces and solids; establishing microbiological profiles of a variety of environmentally controlled areas ranging from conventional industrial clean rooms to laminar-flow clean rooms; and developing the technology of air sampling and surface sampling in these environments. This element of work culminated in the establishment of a field laboratory at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida where 25 to 30 (to date) automated and manned spacecraft were sampled in an attempt to establish microbiological profiles. Sampling or culturing procedures that were developed at the Phoenix Laboratories were refined and field-evaluated at the Cape Kennedy Laboratory.
Other main research interests concerned recovery of heat- and ethylene-oxide-injured bacterial spores; recovery techniques for anaerobic spores; use of ultrasonic energy as an adjuvant for surface recovery techniques; and development and evaluation of the vacuum probe for surface sampling. Another main line of research concerned the dry heat inactivation of bacterial spores.
[51] This group introduced the concept of utilizing naturally occurring spores associated with spacecraft as the major indices of heat resistance rather than subcultured spores of Bacillus subtilis var. niger. Laboratory evaluations and onsite inspections were conducted throughout the course of the agreement.
Institution
Food and Drug Administration, Cincinnati Research Laboratories, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226
Principal investigators
Jeptha E. Campbell, Ralston B. Read, Jr., Robert Angelotti, James T. Peeler
Starting Date: 1965
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
Through a series of interagency agreements, the principal investigators, under the auspices of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, the National Center for Urban and Industrial Health, the Environmental Protection Agency, and, currently, the Food and Drug Administration, have conducted research and specifically assigned investigations on problems of dry heat sterilization. The major topics addressed by this group included establishing D and z values for the selected test organisms Bacillus subtilis var. niger, demonstrating the effect of the immediate environment on the thermal stability of spores, and establishing D and z values for the organisms residing within components (buried contamination) and within mated surfaces.
More recently, special attention has been given to the relationships between time, temperature, and humidity on the thermal inactivation of spores and to the development of experimental systems for testing and evaluating thermal sterilization cycles under a variety of humidity and temperature conditions. This system is suitable for measuring survival in the probability ranges of 10-2 organisms per test unit.
Institution
AVCO Corporation, Lowell, Massachusetts 01815
Principal investigators
D.H. Trussel, Edward A. Botan
Starting Date: 1965
Termination Date: 1969
Scope:
Under a series of contracts with different NASA research centers, calculations were made of total microbial burden on spacecraft, and a Terminal Sterilization Chamber (TSC) and a Model Assembly Sterilizer for Testing (MAST) were designed and constructed.
[52] Institution
Dudley Observatory Division of laboratories & Research New York, State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y. 12200
Principal investigators
John Hotchin, Peter Lorenz, Curtis Hemenway
Starting Date: 1965
Termination Date: 1969
Scope:
Studies on the survival of microorganisms in space were carried out in rocket, balloon-borne, and satellite exposure experiments.
Institution
Northrop Corporation, Northrop Space Laboratories, 3901 West Broadway, Hawthorne, California 90250
Principal investigators
W. H. Cooper, R.J. Calof, A. L. Debolt, J. R. Hamer
Starting Date: 1965
Termination Date: 1966
Scope:
A study was made of critical sterilization problems on a Mars entry probe. In particular, the ability of various spacecraft components or parts to withstand dry heat treatments and ethylene oxide exposure were investigated.
Institution
Florida State University, Department of Statistics, Tallahassee, Florida 32306
Principal investigators
Richard G. Cornell, Myles Hollander, John J. Beauchamp, S. Eric Steg
Starting Date: 1966
Termination Date: 1970
Scope:
Probability models were developed for the description of decontamination strategies for the exploration of Mars and for the decontamination of individual spacecraft. Statistical consultation was provided on a number of problems encountered by other investigators involved in the Planetary Quarantine Program.
Institution
Atomic Energy Commission, Sandia Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87115
Principal investigators
H.D. Sivinski, Charles A. Trauth, Jr., Willis J. Whitfield
[53] Starting Date: 1966
Termination Date: 1973
Scope:
For lunar programs, Sandia Laboratories has developed the computerized information system used for estimating the terrestrial bioburden of the Moon as a function of lunar coordinates and time. From this, scientists are able to provide estimates of the likelihood that returned lunar samples are contaminated with terrestrial organisms.
For planetary programs, research activities were concentrated in approximately eight areas: (1) assessment of the importance of laminar-flow clean-room technology on planetary quarantine success; (2) development of better understanding of the dry heat sterilization of homogenous and heterogeneous microbial populations; (3) development of better understanding of the sterilizing effects of radiation in space; (4) development of better sterilants (notably, thermoradiation and odorless formaldehyde solutions and gels); (5) development of models for bioburden estimation and prediction and statistical standards for spacecraft sampling; (6) development of highly accurate bioburden sampling devices; (7) study of means of translating program objectives into realizable spacecraft requirements in the presence of much uncertainty about the specific long term nature of the program; and (8) general scientific consulting.
Institution
North Dakota State University, Department of Polymers and Coatings, Fargo, North Dakota 58102
Principal investigators
A.E. Rheineck, Loren W. Hill, S. Peter Pappas
Starting Date: 1967
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
Studies have been done on whether spores remain viable in polymeric resins that are crosslinked by chemical curing agents. Inherent toxicity of resins and curing agents is determined, and the toxic effects resulting from high temperatures produced by exothermic curing reactions are investigated.
Solvents are used to assist in the degradation of crosslinked polymers so as to obtain higher recoveries than are possible through the mechanical degradation of dry polymers. Solvent selection is made using the solubility parameter approach. Systems studies include such things as cured epoxy resins and silicone potting compounds. Other polymeric materials used in spacecraft components will also be investigated.
[54] Institution
Becton, Dickinson and Company, Becton, Dickinson Research Center, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709
Principal investigators
G. Briggs Phillips, William S. Miller, J.J. Tulis, V.A. Pace, Jr.
Starting Date: 1968
Termination Date: 1972
Scope:
Methods for the sterilization of potting compounds and mated surfaces were investigated. The mixture of formaldehyde or formaldehyde complexes was studied in particular.
For the Langley Research Center, a magnetically connected plastic vacuum probe surface sampler was developed, fabricated, and tested.
Institution
U.S. Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control, 1600 Clifton Road, N.E., Atlanta, Georgia 30333
Principal investigators
Peter Skaily, George W. Gorman, Donald C. Mackel, D.K. Riemensnider, H.V. McEachern, Anita Highsmith, Nancy L. Shearin
Starting Date: 1964
Termination Date: 1972
Scope:
Investigations conducted at the Center for Disease Control addressed three areas: (1) dissemination of microorganisms from humans, (2) germicidal activity of ethylene oxide gas, and (3) destruction of bacterial contamination on surfaces exposed to low-level heat.
In the dissemination studies, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of microorganisms shed by different individuals were determined. Various skin treatments and clothing barriers were investigated to determine whether shedding rates could be reduced.
Studies were conducted to determine tee destruction rate of bacterial spores and naturally occurring extramural microorganisms exposed to ethylene oxide gas. The rate of die-away was determined for microorganisms in various chemical and physical states, as was the survival rate following exposure to different concentrations of ethylene oxide gas.
Bacterial survival on intramural surfaces under conditions of controlled heating and relative humidity was studied, and the die-away rate of bacterial spores to low-level heating was determined.
Institution
Office of Naval Research, Naval Biomedical Research Laboratory, Oakland, California 94625
[55] Principal investigators Robert L. Dimmick, Mark A. Chatigny, N.A. Vedros
Starting Date: 1972
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
The laboratory is conducting studies on the possibility of microbial metabolism, growth, and propagation while in aerosols. The work is directed toward evaluation of P(g) for microorganisms entering the atmosphere of Jupiter where there are predicted zones with environments suitable for growth of terrestrial microorganisms. The work is being done in collaboration with Biospherics, Inc., of Rockville, Maryland, utilizing Biospherics' technology for ultrasensitive detection for microbial metabolism by evaluation of radio-labelled C02 provided in the growth substrate. Other test systems use special microbial mutants to demonstrate the presence of products of cell division even though actual physical division may not have occurred.
Institution
Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California 94025
Principal investigators
D. Warner North, J. Michael Harrison, Consultant: Joshua Lederberg
Starting Date: 1972
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
Stanford Research Institute has undertaken a review of the basic probabilistic models of contamination currently being used in the PQ Program. A primary question is whether models now in use account adequately for the informational dependencies that exist among events important to the contamination process. Effort is also being devoted to the construction of a more detailed model of microbial proliferation on the planet Mars.
Institution
Hardin-Simmons University, Department of Biology, Abilene, Texas 79601
Principal investigators Terry L. Foster, Luther Winans, Jr.
Starting Date: 1972
Termination Date: Continuing
Scope:
This investigation consists of a comprehensive population study of psychrophilic microorganisms isolated from the soils near the [56] manufacture and assembly areas of the Viking spacecraft. It includes enumeration, isolation, characterization, and temperature studies on microorganisms capable of growth at low temperatures. Selected isolates are then subjected to some of the environmental conditions suggested for Mars to determine if they are capable of growing under these conditions.