CHAPTER 10
COMMERCIAL USES OF THE SHUTTLE

Akin, David L. "Teleoperations, Robotics, Automation, and Artificial Intelligence: Technologies for Space Operations." U.S. Opportunities in Space. London, England: Space Consultants International, 1985. This article, presented at the second annual Space Business Conference in 1985, says that the development of the Space Shuttle opens the door to the potential development of space for commercial purposes. So far, these operations have focused on two separate technologies: manual, for piloted missions, and automated, for satellite missions. With recent developments, however, those dichotomies are no longer valid as a whole spectrum of possibilities is present. The two aspects of this spectrum dealt with here are the results of a two-year effort to categorize and evaluate the applications of automation, robotics, and machine intelligence systems for space programs and an overview of experimental efforts in space teleoperations, automation technology for space manipulators, and the crew scheduling system for space station use.

Ariane vs. Shuttle: The Competition Heats Up. Washington, DC: Television Digest, Inc., 1985. This short publication reviews the benefits and liabilities of launching satellites on the two principal means available, the Shuttle or the allegedly privately developed but still government subsidized Ariane expendable launch vehicle. With the competition for the satellite launch market in full-swing this book assesses how NASA and Arianespace reached their market positions in terms of service versus price.

Baker, David. "Space Shuttle: A User's Guide." Flight International. 20 May 1978, pp. 1552-58. A review of the Shuttle's potential, emphasizing its commercial and practical activities.

Banks, Howard. "Overloaded Shuttle." Forbes. 19 July 1982, pp. 33-34. This article comments on the difficulties of buying space on the Shuttle for either scientific experiments or satellite launches.

Becky, Yvan. "Commercial Use of the Space Transportation System: Toward a Permanent Manned Space Station." Proceedings of the International Conference and Exhibition on the Commercial and Industrial Uses of Outer Space. Montreux, Switzerland: Interavia Pub. Group, 1986. pp. 57-66. Discusses the resumption of space transportation system operations, including the strategy for a safe return to flight, planned technical modifications to the solid booster, ground rules for a first launch, and the launch target date. According to the author, Shuttle support of commercial activities in orbit includes satellite servicing, satellite retrieval, and future support of a permanent space station.

Bennett, James, and Salin, Phillip. "The Private Solution to the Space Transportation Crisis." Space Policy. 3 (August 1987): 181-205. The authors of this lengthy article assert that confused and short-sighted decisions dominated by political expediency have been made about the U.S. space program for the past 30 years. Overly large and ambitious systems have been chosen, resulting in the present crisis in space transportation. The history of commercial aircraft development offers an alternative example of producing a range of sizes and capabilities for a wide variety of users and shows that the space transportation industry could benefit from applying the decision-making processes used in private enterprise. The authors examine strategies for privatization of the Shuttle and conclude that policy support for the commercial launch industry must be continued. NASA must also be reoriented toward its basic research function, and more government services should be bought from the private sector.

Bimmerle, Charles F. "Manufacturing in Space: Are You Ready?" Twenty-eighth Annual International Conference Proceedings of the American Product and Inventory Control Society. Falls Church, VA: APICS, 1985. The author suggests that the strategy of high technology coupled with emphasis on a global economy has brought about a second industrial revolution. A critical component of that revolution has been the space program, contributing new products and technologies to make life easier on earth. The Shuttle represents a opportunity to maximize that new development. America, via NASA, is ready to collect the economic, technological, and political rewards that can be attained from manufacturing in space. This presentation outlines the history, plans, and future of the newest type of manufacturing available to the business community, microgravity.

Blahnik, James E., and Davis, James E. "Advanced Applications of the Space Shuttle." Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. 11 (February 1974): 117-119. This short article describes some of the applications anticipated for the Shuttle, emphasizing the new technologies emerging from its development.

Brown, Richard L. "Avenues and Incentives for Commercial Use of Low-Gravity Environment." Materials Processing in Space: Proceedings of the Special Conference. Columbus, OH: American Ceramic Society, 1983. pp. 197-209. This article discusses the new technology of microgravity when applied to the production of materials. It describes the process whereby the Shuttle in orbit can be used as a laboratory for such work, and predicts that by the end of the 1980s such activities will be routine.

Campbell, Janet W. "Choosing Reliability Level for Shuttle- Carried Payloads." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 14 (December 1976): 38-42. This professional paper assesses the methods and makes recommendations on the nature and means of choosing payloads for the Shuttle, essentially prioritizing those that will have the greatest immediate benefits for humanity.

Covault, Craig. "Boeing Eyes Private Shuttle Operation." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 2 October 1978, pp. 23-25. This is a news report of studies by Boeing to assess the possibilities for the development and operation of a Shuttle by the private sector.

Divis, Dee Ann. "Commercializing the Fifth Orbiter--Can it be Done Successfully." M.A. Thesis, University of Nebraska, 1982. This unpublished study in economics reviews the feasibility of privatizing the fifth orbiter. Developed as a hypothetical situation, the scenario is played out using readily available construction and operational data. Not surprisingly, the author finds the approach viable. The most interesting aspect of this study is a discussion of the government's position on commercialization of an orbiter.

Divis, Dee Ann. "Thinking Big by Keeping it Small: The Price and Scheduling Advantages of a Fully Reusable Mini-Shuttle." International Space Business Review. 1 (June-July 1985): 38-43. This article comments on the efforts of Third Millennium, Inc., to develop a new design and approach to the Space Shuttle system. Its space van system is based on reusable technology and promises commercial, airline-type operations. The launch services include a seven-day turn-around, a one-month lead time, the ability to schedule additional or emergency launches, and a launch price of $1.9 million to $40 million, depending on orbit and weight. These conditions mean both small and large companies will be able to take advantage of the opportunities in space.

Fink, Donald E. "On-Orbit Satellite Servicing Explored." Aviation Week & Space Technology. 14 April 1975, pp. 35-39. One of the potentials of the Shuttle was always the ability either to go into space and retrieve satellites and other objects for repair or to fix them while still in orbit. This article discusses this possibility as it was being studied by NASA.

Gillam, Isaac T. "Towards Industrial Development in Space." Space Communications Broadcast. 5 (March 1987): 37-43. The industrial and commercial uses of space promise substantial tangible benefits for large numbers of people throughout the world, but this effort is not without risk. NASA's Office of Commercial Programs was established in 1984 in order to provide a focus for the agencywide program to encourage private investment in commercial space activities and to facilitate technology transfer. The Shuttle program has been one focus of these efforts.

Hosenball, S. Neil. "The Space Shuttle: Prologue or Postscript?" Journal of Space Law. 9 (Spring-Fall 1981): 69-75. This article treats the development of the Shuttle as a method for easy access to space, focusing on the problems and potential of space commercialization, the legal issues of orbiting civilians, and associated questions. As might be expected, it is heavy on policy and legal questions and short on technological discussions.

McMahan, Tracy, and Neal, Valerie. Repairing Solar Max: The Solar Maximum Repair Mission. Greenbelt, MD: Goddard Space Flight Center, 1984. Discusses the successful Shuttle mission to repair a satellite in orbit.

Moore, David H. Pricing Options for the Space Shuttle. Washington, DC: U.S. Senate Budget Committee, 1985. This government report explains pricing options for the NASA Space Shuttle's commercial activities. It also analyzes Shuttle system costs, reviews alternative cost bases for pricing policy, and examines the implications of policy options for space policy objectives.

Moore, W.F., and Forsythe, C. "Buying a Shuttle Ticket." Astronautics & Aeronautics. 15 (January 1977): 34-40. This paper concerns a preliminary draft for reimbursement for Shuttle flights that had been developed by NASA. It comments on the reimbursement policy, the transition from expendable to reusable systems, the new user services, and the economics of these activities in relation to the cost of operating.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Operational Cost Estimates, Space Shuttle--Development of User Charge Policy on Reusable Spacecraft. Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, December 1976. This report presents the rationale for NASA's estimate of out of pocket cost of $10.5 million (1971 dollars) per Shuttle flight if 60 missions were flown each year. Shuttle operating costs are used to develop the charge policy for various government and industrial users of the space transportation system. It also includes a comparison of various reimbursable service charges.

Projection of Non-Federal Demand for Space Transportation Services Through 2000--An AIAA Assessment for the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the White House. New York: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1981. This study assesses the market for space transportation--launch, repair, and recovery of satellites principally--from which the Shuttle might benefit, finding sufficient demand for the program to justify its continuation.

Roberge, J.L. "Health Emergency Learning Plan (H.E.L.P.)--Down-to-Earth Applications of Space Shuttle Technology." Emergency Medical Services. 8 (July/August 1979): 11, 14, 16-17. This article describes a commercial spin- off program resulting from the Shuttle effort.

Simon, Ellis. "Insurance Liftoff Key to Space Shuttle Blastoff." Business Insurance. 24 (July 1978): 128-40. This lengthy article discusses the role of the insurance community in preserving the investments of organizations involved in the space program and how the Shuttle affects that program.

Williamson, Ray A. "The USA and International Competition in Space Transportation." Space. 3 (May 1987): 115-21. This article is one of several that appeared during the latter 1980s reviewing the problems of competition for commercial launches on the Space Shuttle and other lifting vehicles. Williamson examines developments in international space transportation from 1982 to 1992 and the failure of U.S. policies to meet foreign commercial competition in space launches. Two goals have emerged from the U.S. policy debate: to achieve assured access to space and to reduce the costs of sending payloads into orbit. Both goals need to be faced within the context of a wider commitment by government and private industry to space investment.

Woodcock, Gordon R. "Rethinking Our Space Future." Space Manufacturing 4: Proceedings of the Fifth Conference. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, 1981. pp. 295-99. The best way to revitalize the U.S. Space program, according to Woodcock, is to force Shuttle operations into commercial avenues by making them self-supporting. This would allow the exploitation of many new technologies and make feasible the placement of a space station in orbit.

Yardley, J.F. Space Transportation System Payload Status and Reimbursement Policy. Washington, DC: Committee on Science and Technology, 1978. In U.S. House of Representatives Report N78- 12127 03-16. This 85-page study presents a status report on the space transportation system, emphasizing the management structure and project planning, use and payloads, cost assessments, and pricing policy.